The Electrical Market Generation Engineering Essay

In a deregulated electricity market, the coevals, transmittal and distribution sectors are operated by different companies. This may give rise to congestion in transmittal lines due to miss of co ordination between different sectors. It may besides happen in a vertically incorporate market but it can easy be taken attention of since all the three sectors are controlled by one entity. Congestion can interrupt the demand and supply market. It can straight impact the net incomes of the market participants. Without congestion market monetary value will be unvarying but with congestion the monetary values in some countries will increase and in other countries will diminish. Congestion changes the pre despatch program of bring forthing units in order to run into the energy demands with cheaper bring forthing units cut downing their end product whereas expensive units increasing their end products in the engorged countries. This makes the energy market less efficient. By congestion we mean that the transmittal web is unable to incorporate all of the coveted minutess due to misdemeanor of the system bounds. These could be thermic, electromotive force, little signal stableness bounds etc. These bounds are violated due to the breaks in power flow in transmittal lines. Therefore it becomes imperative to take steps that would forestall or acquire rid of congestion in transmittal lines. Let ‘s hold a expression at a congestion illustration. Suppose that there is a part where the electricity supply becomes really inexpensive. This would ensue in an increasing demand as more and more people would desire to travel for that electricity seting a immense sum of burden on the system. In order to run into the increasing demand, there would be heavy flow of power over the transmittal lines. This would incur losingss every bit good as the stableness bounds would be threatened ensuing in congestion. There are two ways to cut down congestion. One is the proficient manner, by utilizing the FACTS devices and the transformer pat accommodations whereas the other one is related to the market e.g auctioning, re-dispatching etc.1.2 AimsThe aims of this thesis undertaking are as follows: To Analyze the FACTS devices To Identify the different jobs due to congestion To show the usage of FACTS devices in pull offing congestion in pool market To smoothen the Locational Marginal Prices ( LMP ) and maximise the societal public assistance Economic consideration in arrangement of FACTS1.3 Scope of ThesisThe thesis will get down with the literature reappraisal on optimum power flow, Power flow restraints, FACTS devices, power flow control, how FACTS are used to increase the transmittal capacity in order to cover with the congestion direction in transmittal systems. Electricity market theoretical account will be generated and by utilizing the FACTS devices the LMP will be smoothened and the societal public assistance will be maximized.. In the terminal based on the consequences, recommendations and decisions would be given consequently.Literature Review2.1 Optimum Power FlowIn 1960 some extensions were made in the conventional economic burden despatch job called optimum power flow ( OPF ) . OPF simulation is used to happen the optimum solution to a job. A system can be modeled by an nonsubjective map. This nonsubjective map could be minimising the production cost, minimising the transmittal losingss etc. It depends on what type of market the nonsubjective map represents. The OPF is used to command different variables in such a manner that the nonsubjective map can be minimized ensuing in the addition in overall efficiency of the system.2.2 Power System ConstraintsWith the growing of electric public-service corporations all over the universe, the transmittal systems are being pushed closer to their stableness bounds whilst more and more quality of power is being demanded. The transmittal of power over an country or a part may be limited due to certain power restraints such as: Steady province power transportation bound Voltage stableness bound Dynamic stableness bound Transeunt stableness bound Oscillations muffling bound Thermal bound These are called the constrictions as they limit the sum of power fluxing through transmittal lines.2.3 Congestion ManagementCongestion direction is a major job faced by the independent system operators ( ISO ) in the deregulated electricity environment as it has a immense negative impact on market monetary values and the market trade ensuing in breaks and pecuniary punishments under some status. FACT devices like TCSC, TCPAR ( more on this in the following chapter ) can assist to cut down congestion, smoothen locational fringy monetary value and maximise the societal public assistance. [ 1 ] The distinguishable congestion direction systems widely being employed are Nodal pricing method Zonal pricing method These are the congestion direction theoretical accounts that are based on optimum power flow algorithm [ 2 ] . In [ 3 ] , two attacks covering with the direction costs are studied. The first attack is the nodal pricing which forms the model for the pool theoretical account. The 2nd attack is based on cost allotment processs proposed for the bilateral theoretical account. Pool and the bilateral theoretical account are compared. The bilateral theoretical account would easy hold been the obvious pick for clients if it had n't been for the particular features of electricity. These features produce two jobs. The first job relates to the presence of transmittal restraints whereas the 2nd one relates to transmittal losingss. The pool adjusts these particular features of electricity in trading procedure. The locational facets of pool theoretical account are based on theory of nodal topographic point pricing. In [ 4 ] , zonary congestion direction has been presented. Importance of existent and reactive power despatchs in relieving the congestion direction has been highlighted. Congestion direction in pool theoretical account is formulated as a Non Linear Programming ( NLP ) and it is solved by utilizing the fittingness distance ratio atom drove intelligence. In [ 5 ] , coordination between the pool and the bilateral trading in congestion despatch in intercrossed market theoretical account is investigated. A mathematical theoretical account of co-ordinated congestion despatch is created which relates the rate of pool buying cost and the curtailment rate of contracts to the precedence of different trades in the intercrossed electricity market.2.4 FACTSThe conventional ways of heightening power system control were to utilize Series capacitance to command the electric resistance, switched shunt capacitance and reactor to command the electromotive force, stage switching transformer to command the angle etc. Now in the modern universe FACTS accountants are being used. The construct of FACTS was foremost introduced in 1990. FACTS stand for Flexible AC Transmission Systems. FACTS is defined by the IEEE as â€Å" a power electronic based system and other inactive equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmittal system parametric quantities to heighten controllability and increase power transportation capableness [ 2 ] . The FACTS devices late became popular due to their efficient power controllability in power transmittal lines. There are a figure of FACT devices that are presently being used each holding their pros and cons. The power is generated and distributed to the consumers over transmittal webs. The power flow is related to the electric resistance of these transmittal lines. Greater the electric resistance lesser will be the power flow. When there is a rush in demand, the power lines with low electric resistance will acquire overloaded before the high electric resistance 1s restricting the power that can be transmitted through the high electric resistance lines. There are two ways through which the lifting demand can be met. They are: – Build more transmittal lines in order to increase the transmittal capacity Use the FACTS devices in the bing transmittal web in order to increase their transmittal capacity by commanding the power flow. The former one is non executable since it requires a immense investing and has some environmental concerns associated with it. The latter 1 is what we would be looking at. The basic applications of FACT devices are: They increase the bing transmittal line power capableness Control the power flow Decrease in reactive power profiting bring forthing companies because lesser the reactive power more will be the existent power. The clients are charged for the existent power they consume. To increase the stableness Voltage control Increase the security of the system. In [ 6 ] , congestion direction methods are considered. The first is the re despatch of the coevals agenda formed by the market. Congestion direction cost is evaluated utilizing the coevals agenda. The installing and the operation of flexible jumping current transmittal systems ( FACTS ) devices in the transmittal lines for the intent of countering congestion is besides considered. A cost benefit analysis is proposed which justifies the economic feasibleness of FACTS devices. After transporting out trials on IEEE 14 coach system, this paper concludes that when FACTS devices are employed in transmittal lines at optimum places they were able to cut down the sum of power to be re dispatched every bit good as the cost of congestion. In [ 7 ] , congestion caused by the increasing figure of bilateral contracts is alleviated by utilizing two methods. Cost free and non cost free agencies. The former trades with the stage shifters, FACTS devices. The system with and without FACTS devices is compared. The optimum power flow ( OPF ) consequence shows that the single power minutess suffer less curtailment with FACTS. The usage of FACTS device called thyristor controlled series compensator ( TCSC ) is discussed. The execution of FACTS devices in bilateral despatch model to keep system stableness and security is proposed. The development of simple and efficient theoretical accounts for optimum location of FACTS devices to undertake congestion direction by the optimum control of their parametric quantities is proposed in [ 8 ] . In a engorged environment, the sensitiveness factors can efficaciously be used to find the optimum location of FACTS devices, TCSC and TCPAR. However this paper does non cover with the optimum location of other FACTS devices such as SVC, STATCOM. In [ 9 ] , steady province theoretical accounts of FACTS devices are formulated based on PIM and incorporated into optimum power flow ( OPF ) . By making this, FACTS tend to acquire flexible due to greater grade of freedom for the OPF solution infinite. The job is solved utilizing consecutive quadratic scheduling ( SQP ) in MatLab. The consequences clearly show that the FACTS devices greatly enhance the electromotive force stableness every bit good as the power transportation capableness.2.5 Controllability of Power FlowThis subdivision will cast visible radiation on the parametric quantities that affect the power flow in transmittal lines. This is indispensable in understanding the working of FACTS for congestion direction. To maintain things simple consider a two coach system in figure 2.1Figure 2.1 Two Bus SystemThe transportation of power between the two points is given by( 2-1 )Where is is Power received is Voltage sent is electromotive force received is characteristic electric resistance of the line eristic electric resistance of the line system in figure 2.1 power flow in transmittal lines. This is indispensable in understand is transmittal angle We have assumed that all the line losingss are neglected. For a short line this equation can be simplified to( 2-2 )Since Equation 2-2 merely states that the power fluxing through a transmittal line depends on three things, electromotive force, angle and electric resistance. The most of import decision that can be drawn from this equation is that higher the electric resistance of a power line lesser will be the power flow through it. Power flow is ever through those lines that have got low electric resistance.Chapter 4Electricity MarketThis chapter negotiations about the deregulated electricity market. How this market construction came into being, what advantages and disadvantages does this current construction has is discussed in the deregulated electricity market subdivision. It so sheds visible radiation on the different market theoretical accounts that are adopted by assorted states. The three market theoretical accounts that exist and discussed in this chapter are Pool theoretical account, Bilateral Model and Hybrid Model. An nonsubjective map for the pool market is formulated. Here the aim is the societal public assistance maximization.MethodologyThe first measure is to reexamine the different sorts of FACT devices. Get familiar with their operation. The following measure involves the use of these FACT devices to relieve congestion in power lines. After that a market theoretical account would be generated that would assist us to analyze the effects of FACTS devices on the market parametric quantities such as LMP, societal public assistance etc. A package will be used to transport out this undertaking. The consequences would be shown with the aid of graphsClasss of FACTS DevicesFACTS devices can be classified into the undermentioned classs.Series CompensationIn series compensation, the FACTS devices are connected in series in transmittal lines to shoot electromotive force. It works as a governable electromotive force beginning. These series FACTS devices can be a variable electric resistance e.g a capacitance. Series induction occurs over long transmittal lines doing a electr omotive force bead. To counterbalance that electromotive force bead, the series capacitances are coupled.Shunt CompensationIn shunt compensation, FACTS devices are connected in analogue to the transmittal lines. These devices inject current at the point of connexion in the transmittal lines. They act as a governable current beginning. Shunt compensation if of two types: – Shunt capacitive compensation This method is implemented when there is a demand to better the power factor. Whenever there is an inductive burden connected to the power system, it ‘s traveling to ensue in a lagging current doing the power factor to dawdle. This is non desirable since the low power factor relates to high sum of current drawn by the burden ensuing in immense energy losingss. A shunt capacitance is connected that draws current taking the electromotive force beginning which helps better the power factor. Shunt inductive compensation This method is used when there is a really low burden connected at the having terminal. This causes a really low current to flux through the transmittal lines. Shunt electrical capacity in the transmittal line causes voltage elaboration. This phenomenon is known as Ferranti consequence. The electromotive force at the having terminal becomes greater than the electromotive force at the directing terminal. To counterbalance, shunt inductances are connected across the transmittal lines.Combined Series-Series CompensationTwo FACTS devices are connected individually in series in a multi line transmittal system. Each of the devices provides independent series reactive compensation for each of the lines.Combined Series-Shunt CompensationIn this constellation, a combination of a series and shunt FACTS devices are used. The shunt device injects current into the system whereas the series device injects electromotive force. In order words this sort of constellation allows to hold an independent control over existent and existent and reactive power fluxing through the transmittal lines.Examples of Series CompensationInactive Synchronous Series Compensator ( SSSC ) Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor ( TCSC ) Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor ( TCSR ) Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor ( TSSC ) Thyristor Switched Series Reactor ( TSSR )Examples of Shunt CompensationInactive Synchronous Compensator ( STATCOM ) Inactive Var Compensator ( SVC )Example of Combined Series-Series CompensationInterline Power Flow Controller ( IPFC )Example of Combined Series-Shunt CompensationUnified Power Flow Controller ( UPFC ) Unified Power flow accountant ( UPFC ) is the most powerful FACTS accountant yet. It has the ability to command both the reactive and active power flow in transmittal lines whereas the other FACTS accountants named above could either command existent or active power flow. It is capable of commanding all the parametric quantities such as electromotive force, electric resistance and angle that are responsible for the power flow. The most widely used FACTS devices are the 1s that involve the thyristor engineering. We will analyze merely two FACTS devices in item since those are the 1s that will be implemented for congestion direction. Those two FACTS devices are: – Inactive Synchronous Compensator ( STATCOM ) Inactive Synchronous Series Compensator ( SSSC )Inactive Synchronous Compensator ( STATCOM )The inactive synchronal compensator ( STATCOM ) was antecedently known as inactive synchronal capacitor ( STATCON ) . It is based on a solid province synchronal electromotive force beginning that is merely like an ideal synchronal machine without a revolving mass. These devices generate a set of sinusoidal electromotive forces at cardinal frequences with quickly governable amplitude and stage angles. Fig 4.1 shows the generalised construction of a electromotive force beginning convertor. The input of a STATCOM is a DC electromotive force which it converts into an AC end product electromotive force at a cardinal frequence in order to counterbalance for the reactive and active power needed by the system. Qref and Pref are the mention signals that control the amplitude of the end product electromotive force V and the stage angle I? , severally. Fig 4.1 Generalized synchronal electromotive force beginning So by altering the Qref, in other words by changing the electromotive force the reactive power exchange between the inverter and the AC system can be controlled. If the amplitude of the end product electromotive force is greater than that of the AC system electromotive force, the inverter produces reactive power for the AC system. If the amplitude of the end product electromotive force is varied such that it becomes less than the AC system electromotive force, the inverter absorbs the reactive power and if both the AC system electromotive force and the end product electromotive force is the same, there is no reactive power exchange. By changing stage angles between the inverter end product and AC system electromotive forces, the existent power exchange between the inverter and the AC system can be controlled. If the inverter end product electromotive force leads the AC system electromotive force, existent power is supplied to the AC system by the inverter. If the inverter end product electromotive force lags the AC system electromotive force, the existent power is absorbed from the AC system by the inverter. Figure 4.2 shows the basic construction of STATCOM and it ‘s V-I features are shown in Figure 4.3. By detecting figure 3.3 it ‘s clear that the accountant can supply both reactive and inductive compensation and is able to command the end product current between the specified maximal capacitive and inductive scope independent of the AC system electromotive force. It can supply full capacitive end product current at any practical electromotive force. It ‘s more effectual than SVC in supplying transmittal electromotive force support every bit good as bettering the stableness of the system since SVC can provide thinning end product current with diminishing system electromotive force as judged by the designed maximal tantamount capacitive entree. The comparing of STATCOM with SVC can expected to give a 50 per centum decrease in the physical size of the installing. Another advantage of STATCOM over SVC is that it is able to back up higher tonss than the SVC can for the comparable MVAr evaluation. The STATCOM may hold an increased transient evaluation in both the inductive and capacitive operating parts, which can further heighten its dynamic public presentation. The conventional SVC were equipped with transeunt volt-ampere soaking up capableness merely. There was no manner that they could transiently increase the var coevals since the maximal capacitive current it can pull is austerely determined by the value of its maximal electrical capacity and the magnitude of the system electromotive force. The transient evaluation of the STATCOM relies on the features of the power semiconducting materials used and the maximal junction temperature at which each of these devices can be operated. Furthermore, STATCOM does non significantly change the bing system electric resistance, which is another advantage over the inactive volt-ampere compensators ( SVCs ) . To cut the treatment short, STATCOM has better features over SVC ; the maximal reactive power end product will non be affected by the electromotive force magnitude. Therefore, it exhibits changeless current features when the electromotive force falls below the bound. The steady province power exchange between the accountant and the AC system is largely reactive, as active power is merely consumed to provide for the internal losingss. Fig 4.2 Basic construction of STATCOM Figure 4.3 V-I features STATCOM can be controlled in two ways.Phase controlIn this technique the stage displacement I? is varied in order to command the STATCOM ‘s end product electromotive force magnitude.Pulse Width Modulation ( PWM )This technique allows the independent control of the magnitude of the end product electromotive force every bit good as the stage displacement that represents angle of the end product electromotive force. The control of DC electromotive force is separate from that of AC end product electromotive force.Synchronous Series Compensator ( SSSC )A synchronal electromotive force beginning that has a DC to AC inverter with gate turn off thyristor can be used for series compensation of transmittal lines. SSSC is reasonably similar to STATCOM as it involves DC capacitance fed electromotive force beginning input which generates a three stage electromotive force at cardinal frequence. This in bend is injected into the transmittal line with the aid of a transformer connected in seri es with the system.. What SSSC does is that it straight controls the current and indirectly controls the power flow by commanding the reactive power exchange between the SSSC and the AC system. It has got an advantage over another FACTS accountant called TCSC, which is that SSSC does n't endure from the resonance job that can be encountered in TCSC since it does non impact the electric resistance of the transmittal lines that much. Fig 4.4 Basic construction of SSSC Figure 4.4 shows the basic construction of SSSC. It shows a electromotive force beginning that produces an appropriate at the cardinal AC system frequence in series with the line to call off the electromotive force bead, Vc to some extent. The end product of synchronal electromotive force beginning is locked with the dawdling relationship to the current and it is so injected in series with the transmittal line. If injected electromotive force magnitude peers that of the line current, a series compensation tantamount to that provided by a series capacitance at cardinal frequence is acquired. Mathematically it can be represented as where Vc is the counterbalancing electromotive force phasor Iac represents the line phasor Ten is line impedence K is called grade of series compensation The chief thing is to command the rms magnitude Iac of the AC current and the rms magnitude Vc of the accountant ‘s AC electromotive force phasor in other words to command the reactive power injected or absorbed by the accountant. Assuming the reactance of matching transportation is negligible, the AC end product electromotive force can be straight controlled through the inverter electromotive force Vinv which can be controlled by bear downing or dispatching the capacitance. In steady province if the accountant is presenting reactive power, the stage displacement I? of the inverter electromotive force with regard to the AC current is -90 grades. On the other manus if the accountant is absorbing reactive power so the stage displacement of the inverter electromotive force with regard to the AC current becomes 90 grades. Hence we can alter the DC electromotive force Vdc and the corresponding inverter end product electromotive force Vin merely by changing the stage displacement par ametric quantity that would bear down or dispatch the capacitance. Fig 4.5 Operation of SSSC Figure shows the operation of SSSC. By presuming that the injected electromotive force in series with the line can be achieved if the DC energy storage has infinite capacity, the electromotive force stage angle can be chosen individually of the line current over 360 grades with the magnitude that is between 0 and Vc soap. This means that the synchronal electromotive force beginning must be able to bring forth and absorb both the existent and reactive power. The accountant is responsible for the production of the reactive power whereas the existent power comes from the DC energy storage device. This storage device besides generates a small active power that is merely plenty to get the better of the accountant losingss.A Time FrameWeekAims1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13AAAAAAAAAAAAAAUndertaking proposalAAAAAAAAAAAAAFACTS executionAAAAAAAAAAAAAMarket theoretical account SimulationAAAAAAAAAAAAAFACTS in market theoretical accountAAAAAAAAAAAAAConsequencesAAAAAAAAAAAAAAnalysisAAAAAAAAAAAAADecisionAAAAAAAAAAAAARecommendationsAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Satan and Evil in the Quran

It is interesting to read the seventh chapter of Major Themes of the Quran. There is an abundance of information explaining the traditions and fundamentality of this argument. It is really interesting to see the common threads that run through the three major religions. When evil and satan is discussed in the Quran it is often referred to along with the jinn. The jinn are the metaphorical representation of the humans. They are often imbued with names such as satans or the Devil. There is much made from the repeated statements that satans stealthily attempt to snatch news from the heavens but are driven away. (Major Themes of the Koran 121) It then goes on to say that the jinn were given the opportunity to listen to the Quran, and then choose the path of good or evil. It is important to note that the information is given to Mohammed from God, and that it is not recorded that the Prophet Mohammed had an contact with the jinn. In the Quran, Satan or evil is not seen as the enemy of God, but rather the rival and enemy of men and women. Satan cannot touch God, is not an equal, so satan preys upon men and women to rebel against God’s command. In the Bible there is the similar belief that Satan is there to tempt men and women to break God’s commandments. A parallel could be drawn between the Quran’s warnings and the Bible’s warning to be vigilant against the activities of Satan. â€Å"O people! Enter all of you into peace and do not follow the footsteps of Satan, for he is your manifest enemy. †(2:208) Satan’s power is derived from the weakness of men and women. In the Quran the devil appears more cunning and artful than strong. . . (Major Themes of the Quran 125) The devil simply invites people to make an error, people still have the ability to say no. The story of Adam and Eve is a common theme through both the Bible and the Quran, and it illustrates this point well. The apple was simply offered, perhaps cajoled, but never forced. Again the common thread, all people must guard against the influence of evil, because it is insidious. The Quran often parallels jinn to mankind, the struggle between evil tendencies and good are in both. It details why it is easy for people to deceive themselves into believing what they are doing is just, ut in reality is just self-serving behavior. Satan is often referred to in the plural satans in the Quran, illustrating its use for both mankind and jinns. There is no satan independent of these two types of beings according to the Quran, one must exist for the other to exist. Satans is also used to for disbelievers. It is said that they take in satans at the exclusion of God. It is believed that as God sends messages to his prophets, so satan sends messages to his wicked followers. Major Themes of the Quran 130). The theme of satan and evil is interesting as it appears in the Quran. There are many parallels with the Bible, such as the story of Adam and Eve. The struggles of men and women against the temptation of evil, is another parallel in the Quran and Bible. The Quran does talk about jinns, which is different than anything mentioned in the Bible. Another large divide is the bel ief that all disbelievers are evil. Consequently I believe there are more similarities than differences.

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Sickle Cell Trait - Research Paper Example Clark has been declared unfit for the game because of a blood disorder called sickle cell trait. Sickle cell trait is a sub-type of sickle cell anemia in which the person has one normal gene and the other abnormal sickle cell gene. Thus, although he does not manifest with the serious blood disorder symptoms but his previous medical history points out that he is at risk of developing serious organ complications. The coach Mike Tomlin explained that Clark had experienced spleen and gall bladder problems in the 2007 game and eventually had to end his game. He had suffered from a serious sickle cell crisis because of the hypoxic conditions caused by the demanding game. Thus they have decided in light of the data to limit him from the upcoming game (Moisse 2012). Dr. Jasmine Zain describing the condition stated that sickle cell trait individuals live a normal life and are sometimes not even aware of their hematological pathology. However, under circumstances of severe hypoxia like high-al titude or strenuous exercises, the hemoglobin forms crystals in the red blood cells and they lose their functional and structural capacity. This leads to sluggish blood flow and blockage of blood vessels. The final outcome is loss of function of organs, stroke, intense joint pain or even cardiac problems. For professional athletes oxygen demand is crucial during the exercise. On the other hand, people with full-blown sickle cell anemia, both the genes are abnormal and they do not have normal hemoglobin at all. This type is associated with serious symptoms and complications and is sometimes also fatal. With new advancements in therapeutic strategies, the life expectancy of sickle cell disease has increased up to 40, 50 and even 60. With these treatment methods, the concentrations of abnormal hemoglobin levels in the blood can be reduced to manage the blood disorder. The permanent cure for sickle cell disease is only bone marrow transplant from preferably a healthy sibling (Moisse 201 2). Clark has stated in the article that sitting back in the benches during the game is indeed discouraging and he hopes that things would get better so that he gets a chance to be a part of the team again (Moisse 2012). Sickle cell trait is a blood disorder which might be neglected or ignored because of its less obvious clinical presentation. But, sickle cell trait individuals have to take certain precautionary measures in order to avoid the associated complications as mentioned earlier. They have to avoid extreme exercise regimens or visiting high altitude areas as this would ultimately increase their blood’s oxygen demand. Although, they are safe from the major signs and symptoms which are associated with sickle cell disease, sickle cell trait individuals still have to face some restrictions and limitations in their everyday life. If we reflect in our everyday life and sickle cell trait implications, outdoor sports and exercise are significantly affected. Children, who are interested in sports which require strenuous physical activity like cricket, soccer, rugby, basketball, tennis and other such games, will have to restrict themselves because of their condition. Some children might show more severe symptoms in reaction to hypoxia as compared to others. However, every sickle cell trait individual is at risk of organ-failure complications and sickle cell crisis in response

Quality Measures Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quality Measures - Research Paper Example John Hopkinson hospital is used as a primary hospital in the comparison. John Hopkinson Hospital when compared in different aspects of service delivery exhibits slight variation to Mercy Medical Center. Different data such as patient survey among other information clearly elaborate the variation. Brief overview of the quality comparison data is as follows, About 81 percent of patients in John Hopkinson Hospital reported a well nurse communication whereas in the Mercy Medical Clinic 80 percent gave the same report of well-communication from nurses. Mercy Medical clinic showed 83 percent well communication by doctors whereas in John Hopkinson Hospital, only 81 percent gave the same report. In pain control, 72 percent of the patients in both John Hopkinson and Mercy Medical Clinic reported that there was adequate control of their pain (Medicare Government, 2015). In both medical centers, 65 percent of patients confirmed that their doctors always explains to them the use of medication provided. The cleanliness of the rooms in both hospitals compared favorable at 69 percent. In general John Hopkinson Hospital and Mercy Medical Clinic have same star rating in their patients’ survey. In the context of after surgery care, John Hopkinson Hospital has 95 percent timely administration of antibiotic after surgery whereas Mercy Medical Clinic has 95 percent. Other records on the use of antibiotics after surgery such surgery whose antibiotics use was stopped at the correct time is not available. In regards to heart failure there is no quality comparison data on the same. John Hopkinson Hospital has a very small number of cases of readmission, complication and deaths from the hip and knee surgery. Mercy Medical Clinic also shows same small data on the readmission and deaths from surgery. No quality survey data is provided in both hospitals for serious complications and deaths (Medicare Government, 2015). The payment and value of

Marketing And Sponsorship For Events And Sports Essay

Marketing And Sponsorship For Events And Sports - Essay Example The teams will be composed of players from various universities, an all-star game of sorts. Having these players participate in the game will increase the interest of the target audience. Amateurs may draw inspirations from these games, and eventually apply the techniques in their own fields. Part of the organizer’s marketing plans is to do radio advertisements two weeks before the event. Utilizing above-the-line media will expand the organizer’s reach and will definitely elicit interest among listeners. Below-the-line media such as posters and flyers will also be used. To support the marketing budget, sponsorships with media and consumer groups shall be initiated. This will result in support in terms of budget and promotions. At the end of the event, the organizers targets for the audience to have increased interest in sports, consequently increasing inquiries in sports-related courses and programs. II. TARGET MARKET III. SWOT a. Strengths – Middlesex University in London is known for its support to Sports Activities. In fact, its involvement in sports activities goes to the extent of encouraging its students to participate and volunteer in sports-related activities. Further, as stated in its website, picking which sports to participate in is a student’s second major decision after selecting the course to take (Middlesex University London 2012). Its expertise and participation in sports activities in the city is a good work ground in implementing this Sports Open Day. Another factor that may considered as strength is the Londoners’ obvious love for sports, which was probably fueled by the city’s hosting of the 2012 Olympics. The clamor for sports activities is still lingering, and the youth are the best group that considers sports-related activities a one of their priorities. b. Weakness – Activity-related funds are still being built up, with great dependence on sponsorships. Though a lot of organizations and co mpanies have the capacity to pledge support for the program, the university’s challenge is to be able to get the needed funds to ensure success of the event. Further, the organizers should be able to come up with the needed funds within a span of less than two months, a feat that is achievable, but would entail hard work for the marketing committee team. c. Opportunity – The city government of London has promised to put in more support in sports-based activities through the mayor’s legacy projects (Increasing opportunities to play sports 2012). Middlesex Universities’ Sports Event is aligned to this goal, and as such, the situation provides a great opportunity for the marketing and promotions with the support of the local government. Having this kind of supporting environment strengthens opportunities to the event organizers. d. Threats – No known major threat has been identified, though probably, the presence of sports-related campaigns that are m ore commercial in value lessens the attractiveness of this endeavor. The organizers however would still want to capitalize on this threat and use it to the event’s advantage by not antagonizing mainstream efforts. Bringing in sponsors from the mainstream group will address this threat as having consumer companies participate in the Sports Open Day would mean opening doors to a wider market reach. IV. OBJECTIVES The

Adolf Hitler was Evil but not Monstrous Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Adolf Hitler was Evil but not Monstrous - Essay Example The entire Germany and the entire army welcomed most of Hitler’s policies. As a leader, he was very effective in perpetuating his foreign policy because the public supported him. Now, does this make the whole German public evil or monstrous as well? There was a desire to raise Germany from defeat and humiliation and Hitler shared this goal. The claim of being evil and being a monster is largely driven by Hitler’s foreign policy because he looked after the welfare of his people. His actions oriented towards the outer world are the ones that could be considered evil and monstrous. But this is even complicated by the fact that Germany was at war and it was bound to commit atrocities and may have partly been compelled to do evil in order to win.Adolf Hitler was also affectionate towards his people; he brought about many reforms and actions that benefit the German public in the local policy making domain. He has also had the capacity for human emotions and the ability to exp ress them. This is excellently depicted in the movie made in 2004 with a title, â€Å"The Downfall† (Palmer). The movie showed Hitler’s last few days during the Second World War. It told us of a complex man with capabilities for affection as he interacted with people and responded to circumstances. The movie depicted Hitler as a man who expresses a wide range of human and positive emotions especially those close to his life. On this account, one cannot argue that Hitler is utterly or completely monstrous.

Macroeconomic Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Macroeconomic Policy - Essay Example Producers buy raw materials, machinery and equipment as well as stores and spare parts for machinery fro trading agencies and consumers buy practically all articles required for their daily use from traders. Goods are produced on a large scale in anticipation of demand. The markets for products are now spread over the length and breadth of the country and even extended to countries across the international borders. Hence direct sale of goods by the producers to the consumers is not possible. Without the help of traders and merchants engaged in trade it would be impossible for the system of large-scale production to continue. The trader involved in the actual operation of purchasing goods from producers and selling them to consumers. Traders and consumers are interdependent. Trade is of great significance for production as well as consumption of goods. It is through trade that goods produced at particular places are equitably distributed among users. With the help of trade goods are made available to consumers at the time of their need. It removes the hindrance of persons by bringing together producers and consumers who are widely scattered. Inflation rises due to many reasons. The reason might be political, economical or social that influences overall economy of the country. Economic protectionism also contributes to the rise in inflation. There are two types of economic protectionism. The first protection in trade is represented in establishing a system of rates and tariffs in favour of domestic production and discourages foreign imports. This kind of protection is desired to encourage establishment of industrial base by saving small and infant industries against the competition of larger and well-established firms in abroad. The second economic protectionism is a post world war -II phenomenon that is related to the proprietorship as businesses by foreign traders and investors. Multinational companies have been set up after world war-II due to immense investments of foreigners. Multinational companies thought that they could evade tariff restrictors by introducing their own branches plants and subsidiaries, which allowed them to go to markets, mobilise resources and capital and get favours with the government. These kinds of investments have created to the economic nationalism due to expansion of multinational companies. The foreign owned companies could not take central position over economic decisions from their head office from outside. The economists are compelled to demand for bringing out a legislation to oversee the activities and restrain the growth of foreign ownership. International trade brings rich dividends and imposing restrictions to such exchanges will hinder the further improvement and in realising the

The issues surrounding euthanasia Essay Example for Free

The issues surrounding euthanasia Essay ‘The concept of the Sanctity of Life is not helpful in understanding the issues surrounding euthanasia.’ Discuss. (10 marks) Some may agree with the statement because the Sanctity of Life does not allow people to make autonomous decisions when it comes to euthanasia. Voluntary euthanasia should be an option for a competent adult who is able and willing to make such a decision. The VES argues that every human being deserves respect and has the right to choose their own destiny, including how they live and die. However, the Sanctity of Life is too rigid as it does not make any exceptions. Furthermore, some may agree with this statement because the Sanctity of Life does not hold one’s quality life as important. For example, Diane Pretty used to lead a full and active life but then suffered from an incurable disease that limited her ability to move and communicate with others like she used. Her quality of life was clearly no longer desirable, and that is why she wanted her husband to end her life so that she could die in a dignified manner. However, the Sanctity of Life overlooks the quality of life, as all life is God given and is thus sacred; therefore it does not truly address the issues surrounding euthanasia. On the other hand, both Natural Law and the Sanctity of Life are against euthanasia because of the teachings in Bible, such as in Exodus 20 – ‘thou shalt not kill’. The primary precept to preserve innocent life is based upon this. Therefore, it is clear that euthanasia is wrong irrespective of the issues that surround it, there are no exceptions. In addition, in Job 1:21 it states that ‘the Lord can gave, and the Lord has taken away’, and this means that only God has the divine authority to take life away, and so euthanasia should not be carried out, it is intrinsically wrong. To conclude, it seems that most would agree with the statement because the Sanctity of Life leaves little room for compassion in comparison to a relative theory of ethics such as Situation ethics, which would aim to do the most loving thing in every situation – so would look at one’s quality of life for example, and other issues surrounding euthanasia. Ultimately, the concept of the Sanctity of Life is not the most helpful in understanding the various issues surrounding euthanasia.

Outcome of Revolt Essay Example for Free

Outcome of Revolt Essay Mahatma Gandhi had played the most important role in the freedom struggle ofIndia through his basic principle of truth, non violence and Satyagraha. He entered in the political scenario in 1916 after returning from a successful struggle against discrimination faced by black people in South Africa. In India through chain of movement for peasants and labourers in Champaren, Ahemdabad and Kheda he entered the Indian scene. Then he reached the zenith of political scenario with his Non-Cooperation movement in support of Khilafat movement and against Jallianwala Bagh massacre by Dyer of people who were gathered for meeting against the Rowllat act. His next big movement was Civil Obedience and in 1942 he planned the Quit Indiamovement, the movement led by common mass. After that final blow British freedIndia on 15 Aug 1947.Though people think that Mahatma Gandhi played normal role in freedom struggle of India but what Mahatma Gandhi did it was not possible by anybody. He was the first leader who under stand the role of masses and took steps to join it with the national movement. Before him nobody understands this fact that by merely movements by educated people or by violent activities British could not be uprooted. He was the man who awakened the real power the common man and with weapon of non-violence, truth and Satyagraha they together demoralized British government and forced her to leave.Another role he played as reformer he tried to uplift the status of untouchables, tried to unite Hindus and Muslims and give proper respect to women and their power.Mahatma Gandhi had played the most important role in the freedom struggle of India through his basic principle of truth, non violence and Satyagraha. He entered in the political scenario in 1916 after returning from a successful struggle against discrimination faced by black people in South Africa. In India through chain of movement for peasants and labourers in Champaren, Ahemdabad and Kheda he entered the Indian scene. Then he reached the zenith of political scenario with his Non-Cooperation movement in s upport of Khilafat movement and against Jallianwala Bagh massacre by Dyer of people who were gathered for meeting against the Rowllat act. His next big movement was Civil Obedience and in 1942 he planned the Quit India movement, the movement led by common mass. After that final blow British freed India on 15 Aug 1947. Though people think that Mahatma Gandhi played normal role in freedom struggle of India but what Mahatma Gandhi did it was not possible by anybody. He was the first leader who under stand the role of masses and took steps to join it with the national movement. Before him nobody understands this fact that by merely movements by educated people or by violent activities British could not be uprooted. He was the man who awakened the real power the common man and with weapon of non-violence, truth and Satyagraha they together demoralized British government and forced her to leave. Another role he played as reformer he tried to uplift the status of untouchables, tried to unite Hindus and Muslims and give proper respect to women and their power. He was the maker of Modern India. After the freedom struggle got even more intense and passionate. Entire India was united together in the movement for freedom. Everyone contributed what they could in the freedom struggle. The cry of Purna Swaraj or complete independence was raised. After much sacrifices and efforts, India gained its independence on the 15th August, 1947.Comparision:- South African former President Mr. Nelson Mandela’s First inspiration was Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation in India. The life and works of two leaders is almost similar and they are icon of these two nations. The inside stories of their greatness give them an iconic status in all over the world.Mahatma Gandhi fought to establish the truth in a non-violence manner Mr. Nelson Mandela spent more the 27 year in Jail to establish the power of democracy in South Africa. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1993 for his contribution in the peace process in South Africa. The names Mandela and Gandhi are often seen together because of their similar leadership style.They both achieved independence for their countries through non-violent means. Mandela used non-violent strategies to achieve his political aims, similar to Gandhi.Mandela shared Gandhi’s vision of common humanity transcending racial and cultural to have derived strategies of non-constitutional protest.Mandela displayed such amazing leadership when he was co-awarded India’s Gandhi Peace Prize Both Gandhi and Mandela spent time in the same prison in Johannesburg, Fort prison.They had a broad commitment to non-constitutional action in the name of higher justice. The one was a man who fought against oppression with patience, self sacrifice, and good will for his enemies. The other was a man who fought against oppression with, violence, propaganda, and enmity cloaked in love towards his enemies. Both achieved there desired ends. The one went to his grave holding to his proclaimed ideals the other has tried to hide his true ideals as far as possible but time has revealed his true goals. ome people call Nelson Mandela, the greatest living Gandhian! Their basic thinking is that Mandela is a follower of Gandhi – thus establishing the superiority of Gandhi. But is it really so? Let’s analyse a little deeper.There are many parallels between the freedom struggle in India and the struggle against apartheid in South Africa. India was occupied by the British, and South Africa was being ruled by the people from another community of European descent – the Afrikaner. The struggle for freedom in India was led by the Indian National Congress (INC), and the struggle against apartheid in South Africa was spearheaded by the African National Congress (ANC). In both the countries, the ruling powers used very similar tactics to rule over the native people – the main s trategy being ‘Divide and Rule’: In India the British activated the Muslims to counter the INC, and in South Africa the White regime financed and armed the Zulus to kill ANC activists. The Muslim League (ML) was effectively led by a person, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who for a long time was also a member of the INC. The Zulu political outfit, Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), was led by, Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi, who was also at one time a member of ANC. The INC stood for all Indians irrespective of their religion, caste or creed. So did the ANC. Reacting to the ML projecting a separate political identity for the Muslims of India, a smaller third native force, RSS, with Hindu nationalist agenda appeared in India. In South Africa also a third political party, Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) emerged declaring that Blacks are the real Africans – again with not much popular support. In both the countries, the main native oppositional parties demanded separate homelands for their ethnic groups, in case of freedom from the imperialist powers. While the ML demanded Pakistan for the Muslims of India in the North-Western part of the country, the IFP demanded for an autonomous a nd sovereign Zulu king, (King Goodwill Zwelethini kaBhekuzulu), as head of state – in effect Zulu Land in the KwaZulu territory. In its struggle, the INC was led by Mahatma Gandhi, whom the country called Bapu, later the Father of the Nation. In South Africa, the ANC was led by Nelson Mandela, known as Madiba, a fatherly figure for all South Africans. Enormous parallels in both the countries! However, the difference is that while Gandhi could not stop the bifurcation of the country, Mandela did. As Jinnah gave a call for Direct Action Day in 1946 and the Hindu-Muslim riots broke out, Chief Buthelezi called on his followers to attack and kill ANC workers and other Blacks. In fact, riding on the back of the Zulu Land Movement, there was also the demand for Volkstaat, or rather Boerestaat, floated by the extremist White supremacist outfit called Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement, led by Eugà ¨ne Ney Terre’Blanche. The demands for Zulu Land and Volkstaat reinforced each other. Like the people of India, the natives of South Africa went through a period of extensive bloodshed – the armed followers of Chief Buthelezi attacked Black townships and a lot of innocent Black people lost their lives! Nelson Mandela, the embodiment of South Africa, took all the pain on his chest, but did not surrender to the separatist agenda of the IFP! Though some concessions were made and very watered down demands of the IFP were accepted, a separate ‘Zulu Land’ did not materialise, nor did Volkstaat! South Africa was saved from getting divided into pieces. Along with the independence of India came the Partition. However, South Africa came out of apartheid as a wholesome nation. In short, where Gandhi failed, Mandela succeeded! The question is what exactly made this difference. The answer may lie in the strategies the two leaders adopted in their political struggle. The main difference has been in their attitude towards non-violence. Unlike Gandhi, Mandela did approve of the use of violence against what he considered a stronger and brutal enemy. In the wake of the Sharpeville massacre on 21 March 1960, South Africa’s equivalent of India’s Jalianwala Bagh massacre, wherein 69 PAC protesters were killed and 180 injured in the police firing, the ANC, also banned along with the PAC after the incident, concluded that the Gandhian methods of non-violence were not suitable against the apartheid system. It was decided that violent tactics had to be used, which primarily involved targeting and sabotaging the government’s resources, though, of course, with an initial wish to minimise the bloodshed of civilians.In 1961, the ANC formed a military wing called Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning â€Å"Spear of the Nation†, with Mandela as its first leader. Mandela coordinated a sabotage campaign against military and government targets, and made plans for a possible guerrilla war if sabotage failed to en d apartheid. The MK launched guerrilla attacks against government installations on 16 December 1961. Mandela was arrested in 1962 and, along with many other ANC and MK leaders, was convicted of sabotage at the Rivonia Trial in 1964. At the trial, Mandela admitted to the acts of sabotage. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island. The ANC/MK carried out numerous bombings of military, industrial, civilian and infrastructural sites in the 1970s and 1980s as well. The tactics were initially geared solely towards sabotage, but eventually expanded to include urban guerrilla warfare, which included human targets. One such attack was the Church Street bombing on 20 May 1983, killing 19 people. The ANC even used necklacing (where a tyre would be put around one’s neck, gasoline poured on it and set alight) to assassinate collaborators, such as black policemen and informers. In these attacks, scores of people were killed and hundreds injured. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission found several instances of torture and executions at ANC detention camps, particularly in the period of 1979-1989. The ANC was declared a terrorist organization, not just by the South African government, but by most of the Western countries including the US and UK. Even Archbishop Desmond Tutu criticized the ANC for its willingness to resort to violence, arguing that non-violent resistance, such as civil disobedience, was more productive. But the use of violent tactics in 1961 was no aberration for Mandela. His belief that the non-violent means of Gandhi could achieve nothing is crystal clear from the speech Mandela gave on 11 February 1990 after his release from Victor Verster Prison in Paarl, in which he said: â€Å"Our resort to the armed struggle in 1960 with the formation of the military wing of the ANC (Umkhonto we Sizwe) was a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid. The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue. We express the hope that a climate conducive to a negotiated settlement would be created soon, so that there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle.† So, there was no question that Mandela would agree with those who criticised the use of violence by the ANC activists, wherein even civilians were killed. Though he declared his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the country’s white minority, through the above-mentioned speech Mandela put his stamp of approval on the ANC’s three decade long armed struggle and also made it clear that it wasn’t over yet. The MK suspended its operations only on 01 August 1990 in preparation for the dismantling of apartheid. The total number of people killed or injured in the 30 years of the MK’s campaigns is not known exactly, but the ANC leadership saw the MK as the armed component of a strategy of â €Å"people’s war†. Mandela explains the move to embark on an armed struggle as a last resort, when increasing repression and violence from the state convinced him that many years of non-violent protest against apartheid had achieved nothing and could not succeed. So, if Mandela believed that non-violent methods could not succeed in South Africa, how did they succeed in India? Or did they really? The INC passed Poorna Swarajya (Complete Independence) resolution at its Lahore conference in December 1929, and it authorized the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was also decided to observe 26 January 1930 as the Poorna Swarajya Diwas. However, despite the intermittent civil disobedience movements launched by Gandhi, nothing happened for more than a decade. In fact, the INC participated in the British controlled elections in February 1937 and took over the administration in various provinces, obviously implying that British rule would continue. Actually, the INC never believed that it had the strength or a strategy to achieve Poorna Swarajya. Immediately after observing Poorna Swarajya Diwas, Gandhi undertook Dandi March from 12 March to 06 April 1930 in protest against the Government tax on salt. Why was there a diversion towards a much smaller issue? Because Gandhi and his followers knew that through their civil disobedience movements they could only get some laws repealed, but not complete independence. Again, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931, the acceptance of the Government of India Act 1935 in the main, and then the participation in the 1937 elections only show that Poorna Swarajya was just a dream rather than a political goal for the INC. The INC demanded complete freedom from the British Raj in earnest only with the launch of the Quit India Movement in August 1942, after the failed talks with the Cripps Mission in March 1942 who offered a limited dominion status for India in exchange for total cooperation from the INC during the war with Nazi Germany. However, as regards the Quit India Movement, firstly it petered out by 1943, and secondly it did become violent. Given the Chauri Chaura example, Gandhi was ideologically bound to withdraw it, had he not been in jail. So, again it would have come to nothing. And, even after running its full course, according to the former British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, the Quit India Movement had minimal impact. In Atlee’s view, the most important reason behind the British decision to leave India was the Indian National Army (INA) activities of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.As quoted by Dhananjaya Bhat in his article ‘RIN mutiny gave a jolt to the British’ an extract from a letter written by PV Chakraborty, former Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court, on 30 March 1976, reads thus. When I was acting as Governor of West Bengal in 1956, Clement Attlee, who as the British Prime Minister in post war years was responsible for India’s freedom, visited India and stayed in Raj Bhavan Calcutta for two days. I put it straight to him like this: ‘The Quit India Movement of Gandhi practically died out long before 1947 and there was nothing in the Indian situation at that time which made it necessary for the British to leave India in a hurry. Why then did they do so?’ In reply Attlee cited several reasons, the most important of which were the INA activities of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, which weakened the very foundation of the British Empire in India, and the RIN Mutiny which made the British realise that the Indian armed forces could no longer be trusted to prop up the British. When asked about the extent to which the British decision to quit India was influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s 1942 movement, Attlee’s lips widened in smile of disdai n and he uttered, slowly, ‘Minimal’. (The Tribune, 12 February 2006, Spectrum Supplement). And, Attlee’s assessment is supported by historical facts. After the war, the stories of the Azad Hind Movement (Provisional Government of Free India in exile) and its army (the INA), that came into the public limelight during the trials of the INA soldiers in 1945, known as the Red Fort Trials, were seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings in India, the British Government forbade the BBC from broadcasting their story. However, the stories of the trials filtered through. The British watched with alarm that General Shah Nawaz Khan, Colonel Prem Sehgal and Colonel Gurbux Singh Dhillon, defended by Jawaharlal Nehru himself at the trials, were perceived by the Indian public as â€Å"the greatest among patriots† (Michael Edwardes, The Last Years of British India, 1964). Newspapers reported the summary execution of some of the INA soldiers. During and after the trials, mutinies broke out in the British Indian Armed forces, most notably in the Royal Ind ian Navy in February 1946, which found huge public support throughout India, from Karachi to Bombay and from Vizag to Calcutta, reminiscent of the scenario of the Rebellion of 1857 where the masses joined the mutineer soldiers in their march from Meerut to Delhi – the only difference being, it was on a much larger scale this time. Not just Attlee, many historians have argued that it was the INA and the mutinies it inspired among the British Indian Armed forces that shattered the spirit and will of the British Raj to continue ruling India. In addition, the British people and the British Army seemed unwilling to back a policy of repression in India and other parts of the Empire even as their own country lay shattered by the war’s ravages. So, it’s nothing else but a myth that India got its freedom through the Gandhian non-violent protests and civil disobedience movements. No doubt, civil disobedience movements won some concessions from the British rulers, and forced them to repeal or modify some of the laws. But an imperialist power, that had never left any of its other colonies – whether Ireland or America – without being pushed out through armed struggle, would not have walked away from ‘the Jewel in the Crown’ just because they faced peaceful protests. It was the threat of mass revolts, army rebellions and revolutionary violence becoming real behind the faà §ade of Gandhi’s non-violent protests that broke the back of the British Rule in India. Had Britain not been weakened by the Second World War, and had the INA not formed and fought against the British, it is very doubtful that India would have got its independence even in 1947.On the other hand, many historians argue that India would have won its freedom right in 1922, as the imperialist British rulers were jolted to the core by the Non-Cooperation Movement at the time and were on the verge of giving in. But Gandhi withdrew the Movement because of the Chauri Chaura incident wherein a mob set fire to a police station. Was that decision in the interest of the national freedom? Many scholars don’t think so. Observers believe that the incident, while regrettable, did not merit the can cellation of a nation’s demand for political freedom. But to Gandhi, the image of greatness was more important than the freedom of India!!The time has come to think whether Gandhi was extreme in his belief in non-violence, and therefore, a failure? Whether the freedom movement was elevated and became more effective by adopting Gandhi’s non-violent approach, or did that strategy stall the struggle for independence? Being what he was, was Gandhi capable of running state-craft that entails use of violence? In South Africa’s first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili. Could one imagine Gandhi ordering troops into Bangladesh, Sri Lanka or Kashmir – even at the invitation of the local government! The thing to ponder over is whether the belief in a judicious use of violence made Mandela a more balanced statesman, and therefore more successful? Whether Gandhi, a great soul – Maha Atma, as Indians call him – was too angelic to be a politician? Whether Gandhi’s strategy best suited India’s cause, or was the country under his spell and suffered? Nelson Mandella:- Peace, democracy and freedom for all South Africans. A united South Africa, he spent 27 years in jail he was inspired by Mahatama Gandhi, at first he used protest methods like boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience, noncooperation and mass rallies then after learning about gandhi he too clung firmly to the principles of non-violence for more than ten years and followed in the foot steps of Mahatma Gandhi. Nelson Mandela is a great person who has never thought about Indias freedom and never spent a single penny for Indians. Mahatma Gandhi spent several yeas in Durban (South Africa) for the welfare of the Africans. Mahatma Gandhi was very much dislike for clothes, Nelson Mandela has never been brave to walk naked. Mandela married thrice, and Mahatma Gandhi married only once. Mandela was oldest elected President of South Africa and Gandhi has never been elected nor participated in any election was not interested to be famous., Mandela died twice or more, ( once in January 2001 CNN announced and published obituary,) but still alive in his Sweet 93.But Gandhi died only once 30th January 1948, before India become Republic. Mandela is 29 years younger to Gandhi and Gandhi is 29 years elder to Mandela.

Ethics in the Tobacco Industry, Pakistan

Ethics in the Tobacco Industry, Pakistan Abstract Quite a lot has been said and done about Business Ethics. Several studies have been conducted emphasizing on the importance of what and How in business environment. However there has been put quite little effort in describing in a unified term of what business ethics exactly asks. Nevertheless existing giant businesses have not been scrutinized of their ethical practices. This study is an attempt to investigate what ethics does Tobacco Industry practice. The case of Pakistan is taken to complete this research so as to check in absence of strict government regulations how responsible does the industry behaves. Cost Benefit analysis procedure for clarifying this ethical dilemma shows that in the absence of strong health hazard data the industrys overall functioning can be considered ethical under utilitarian school of thought. This is because the number of beneficiaries of the industry in a developing country like Pakistan is immense and the recognized harms are comparatively less. This thesis gives the real coaster effect when these results are revealed. However this is a deductive study that leads to further research questions and discovers new undiscovered ventures to explore. Introduction Ethics is mostly known as the study of decision making that while doing this considers the widely accepted moral standards. One of the ethical questions however is the ethical dilemma, in which an issue has two conflicting bur arguably valid sides. A classical ethical dilemma example can be of the debate on allowing the tobacco companies to advertise. If allowed to do so then that means encouragement of an unhealthy practice but on the other hand if they are not allowed to advertise then it is clear discrimination between rights. Similarly Employees have the right to privacy, but employers also have right to expect safe, competent behavior from employees. Now who is to decide the winner between employees choice of taking drugs or employers liberty to let undergo their employees through drug tests? Many such ethical questions are faced by managers every day. The common theme in all ethical dilemmas is a clash between the privileges of two or more stakeholders over one another. Traditionally, the place of ethics in business practices has been to supply a decision procedure or some formal normative orientation. The place of ethical theory in the making of business decisions is problematic, and the symptoms are numerous. This can be seen, for example, in the difficulties authors of business ethics texts often have in employing ethical theories to resolve or clarify issues of ethical or social concern. In my opinion the theories for resolving the ethical dilemmas themselves create an ethical dilemma. For instance some of the employees in the organization feel that there shouldnt be fixed working hours. As long as they are productive there should not be any restrictions on them regarding the time schedules. If we analyze this case under the two schools of thought i.e. Utilitarian and the deontological we will see that if the employees are productive without imposing the limit of fixed working hours on them i.e. the consequence of the proposition is positive then according to the utilitarian theory the act is ethical. While Deontological concept will take it as unethical for it will see it as breaking the laws and conventions of the organization It can be observed that presently accepted and practiced ethical theories posit strong foundations. In my opinion however these theories are of limited use in solving ethical problems. Their reliability and ability to be generalized can be challenged because they ignore certain aspects of morality and prefer others according to different situations that arise in different contexts. This study is devoted to resolve the conflict of deciding between what is and what is not ethical in the Tobacco industry. The theory chosen for the study is utilitarian theory which has two advantages over other alternative ethical theories as how to be applied in various business endeavors. Firstly as we know that business works for the motive of benefiting self and so does utilitarian theory defines morality i.e. morality is to prefer self interest as prime. Secondly utilitarian theory is analyzed by comparing the benefits and harms of a given option and this is how it again finds similarity with profit and loss in accounting and business. Since utilitarian theory is quantified with the help of cost-benefit analysis so the data is analyzed by using cost-benefit analysis model. The strive was to be able to resolve the ethical dilemma regarding the existence and functioning of Tobacco industry without creating an ethical dilemma through the process of resolving it. Business Ethics. Business ethics is a form of applied ethics that identify and solve the ethical and moral issues in the business environment. In the increasingly conscience focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing (wikipedia, 2007). Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporations use alternate words such as social responsibility charters, corporate social responsibility etc to highlight the importance of social values and norms. Business ethics has to decide on ethical issues by looking through the lens of the employee, the enterprise or the society as a whole. Ethical dilemma It is the situation in which an issue has two conflicting but arguably valid sides. Ethical dilemmas continue to receive a great deal of attention from philosophers and management experts, who have developed a number of tools to guide managers through sometimes confusing and always difficult decisions regarding ethical dilemmas. However it is important to note that like the problem the methods for resolving this problem are also not absolute and agreed upon. Even the best models rarely lead to a single answer that is absolutely right, just or fair, but they do point the way to answers that seem more right, more just, or more fair than others Hosmer(1988 a). Principles of ethical analysis have their roots in normative philosophy, the study of proper thoughts and conduct, or how people should behave Hosmer(1988 b). Five commonly applied normative approaches are described as under. Deontology. Deontology depends on the intentions of a person making the decision or performing the act. A deontologist would disagree with the emphasis on outcome as the determinant of moral actions because consequences are generally indefinite and uncertain at the time the decision is made. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) provided much of the base for understanding this concept in all eras. Theories of Justice. Theories of justice explain ethical decisions on the basis of fairness and impartiality (Stead et al, 1990). This philosophy stresses social justice. Critics point out that this theory assumes that social cooperation provides the basis for all economic and social benefits, which may or may not be true (Stead et al, 1990). Theories of Rights. Theories of rights as from the name indicate that the most ethical decision will be based on protecting peoples right that might potentially be affected by the decision (Courtland et al, 1992). Theories of rights, unlike theories of justice, depend upon on equal opportunities for choice and exchange, not on equal allocations of wealth and income. As discussed earlier sometimes the conflicting rights become the shortcoming of the application of this theory (Courtland et al, 1992). Social Contract Theories. Social contract theories hold that when individuals become a part of a bigger community such as an organization of a local community then they agree to share the values of that group and also agrees to the means of reaching the agreed upon goals (Thomas, 1991). Critics argue that social contract theories do not give liberty to the individual thinkers who might have a contradicting opinion from their fellow community members (Thomas, 1991). Utilitarian theories. Utilitarian theories support the idea that ethical behavior results in the greatest good for the greatest number. So, according to utilitarian theories, the most ethical decision creates the greatest degree of benefits for the greater number of people while having a potential of inducing comparatively lesser amount of damages or harm (Hitt Columbus, Ohio 1990). Consequentialist moral theories are teleological which means that they aim at some goal state and evaluate the morality of actions in terms of progress toward that state. Tobacco Industry and Business Ethics. This section will outline some historical facts related to tobacco industry and will also highlight how this industry grew from the scratch. This section also includes the description of the functioning of the tobacco industry in terms of business ethics since from the beginning of its origin right up till now. Finally the chapter concludes by briefly stating how it became a part of Muslim and Asian culture. Tobacco Plant. Tobacco is a natively fostered plant of America. Tobacco plant has very small seed such as one ounce approximately contains over three hundred thousand seeds. This plant started being cultivated according to an estimate thousand years B.C. As early as one B.C., Tobacco started being used in various religious activities. Not only religious but also was thought to be of quite a medicinal importance by American Indians. It was basically thought of as pain killer and was also used by quite a number of people as a cure all solution. Discovery of the New World. Christopher Columbus was gifted dried tobacco leaves by the American Indians. As it was brought to Europe it started to be grown all over the Europe. Europeans grew it against a misinformation that tobacco has a healing tendency and that it can cure all the diseases no matter how big or small. According to a book written by a Spanish doctor in 1571 tobacco could cure at least thirty six health problems. Thomas Harriet a Virginian in 1588 invented smoking as he wanted to discover a way that could help take a daily dose of tobacco. Later he died of nose cancer because it was through the nose then that they use to breathe tobacco. In 1610 Sir Francis Bacon realized that trying to quit smoking was really difficult. In 1632 for the first time for moral reasons smoking got prohibited in Massachusetts. Tobacco: A Growth Industry For the first time when tobacco industry got significant industry value was in 1776. In the American Revolutionary War It acted as a security against the loans America borrowed from France. However scientists continued to understand the chemicals in tobacco, as well as the dangers they had. In 1836 tobacco was recognized as a lethal commodity.In 1847, the famous Phillip Morris was established, selling hand rolled Turkish cigarettes. Until 1900 chewing tobacco was the most famous tobacco product however cigarette started becoming famous in 1990s. As the cigarette was gaining popularity so was anti smoking campaigns with the notion of some states in America asking for total ban on tobacco. The demand for cigarettes however kept growing. The Recent trends. In 1980s was the time when legal actions gained their pace against the working of tobacco industry as in 1982 from the Surgeon General reports it was evident that tobacco is injurious to health and by no means its use or sale can be termed legal. It was also known that passive smoking may cause lung cancer. It was in 1990 that smoking got banned in all the flights except for the flight to Alaska and Hawaii. In 1990, Ben Jerrys initiated anti smoking campaigns and terminated business with tobacco industry allies. This lead Tobacco industry to change their strategy in the 80s and 90s and they started marketing their products heavily in developing countries of Asia. The strategy was to acquire market share from the markets with more flexible rules for tobacco business. It has been revealed that tobacco industry has realized all long and is aware of the harmfulness of their products. Knowing this did not stop them from doing and expanding business and they have been justifying this by stating that people make informed choice. This draws our attention on the fact that those who are being blamed need to take measures against this blame. The arrival of Tobacco in the Muslim World. Quite similar to the situation in Europe Tobacco use started by physicians and started to gain popularity through medical manuals and journals in the Middle East by the last years of the sixteenth century (Grehan, 2006). Those responsible for carrying the same message were mostly non Muslims that had contacts with Europe and could easily understand, interpret and translate the work of Europeans for the locals (Gokhale, 2009). There were not any segments of Middle Eastern society that did not contribute to this constantly increasing demand. While investigating tobaccos prevalence in his era, the Damascene jurist Abd al Ghani al Nabulsi confidently declared in 1682, Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam People of all kinds have used it and devoted themselves to it I have even seen young children of about five years applying themselves to it (Ghauri, Atcha, Shiekh, 2006, p.34). Among these early users were quite a lot of women (Grehan, 2006). As Grehan (2006, p.413) states from the time of its first entry, tobacco would have to rebuff strenuous challenges from political and religious authorities, who in the most critical tests of its appeal would join forces in sporadic anti-smoking campaigns. One widely accepted methodology was to win a debate for proving tobacco as an intoxicant and that it has the same affect on the body as wine therefore strictly forbidden by Islamic law as resourced in Quran and Hadith (Grehan, 2006). Tobacco manufacture in subcontinent started in Akbars reign. But by 1617 its use had become so widespread that Akbars successor Jahangir (1605-1627) issued a verdict forbidding the smoking of tobacco Gokhale (2009). Tobacco Industry of Pakistan. Smoking can be proved as dangerous for peoples health but for the economies such as of Pakistan and other such nations, it is the good news that they will always want to hear. This section intends to highlight the important role tobacco plays in the economics of the country. Tobacco industry contributed 4.4 per cent or over Rs 27.5 billion to the total GDP of Pakistan including Rs 15.17 billion, including Rs 14.54 billion in excise duty and sales tax, in 1997. According to data provided through the internet resources it can be seen that tobacco industry pays six times more taxes than is earned from the cotton industry. This makes the tobacco industry to pay over five percent of all the taxes that are collected by the country. Furthermore over a million people are working as tobacco industry employees. Cultivation area has also increased in the last decade that means increase in business. The figure indicates the increase of thirty percent which is even less than the percentage increase of production i.e. hundred and forty five percent. The only crop of Pakistan whose yield exceeds the world average is also tobacco i.e. its per hectare yield equals that of the US and several other developed countries that makes approximately nineteen hundred kilograms. Tobacco Industry and Ethics. Tobacco Companies cannot be treated like rest of the companies as all their practices and products are not like other companies. Tobacco industry produces the products that are not only legal but at the same time they are also deadly for their consumers. How wondrous is that a product can kill more than half of its regular users? As such, in terms of CSR activities, they cannot simply figure among the ranks of other consumer goods companies. Despite the tobacco industrys thinly-veiled attempts to gain corporate respectability and companies claims to have changed their practices, they keep on adopting unethical strategies to promote their products, expand markets and increase profits (WHO, 2003). Objective of study The research will focus on the Tobacco Industry of Pakistan as the case of Ethical dilemma situation.The research will investigate what ethics do the tobacco industry practice. And can they be termed ethical under Utilitarian school of thought. Utilitarian theory is the world renowned theory to solve various ethical dilemmas in terms of the consequences an activity has. In short the study will be conducted to justify the role of Tobacco Industry in terms of business ethics. Literature review This chapter serves as a backbone of the whole study. This study is deductive in approach so a complete review of the existing literature and schools of thoughts was mandatory to recommend future issues for research. The section starts with defining the core concepts and terminologies followed by how and where these concepts have been used. This section also states why one theory and method has been selected over the others. As the chapter grows there are arguments far and against of the practices of tobacco industry and how they varied in two time zones i.e. from 1980-1999 and from 2000-2007. Business ethics Dilemma: Business ethics adapts its functioning from the methods prescribed by normative believes to resolve the moral issues in businesses. Business ethics studies both profit and non-profit corporations. Existing practices are judged on the basis of what ought to be done in the given situation. One specific feature is vital to the business ethics. Business ethics has to account for strategic concerns. In the business sphere, ethical reflection has to allow for the interest at stake, in order to avoid being so high principled that one disregards all consequences for the corporations future (Peter Pratley 1997). The common opinion seems to be that the term business ethics is not found anywhere in its true spirit. This is thought because ethics and business in soul are different. Where ethics preaches being nice and charitable there business finds its way to satisfy self interests and nasty objectives. Organizations spend a lot of time and effort in implementing new initiatives for profit making and cost cutting however not even half of this commitment of resources can be seen for the implementation of ethical programs. The impression is given that adherence to the ethical code of practice is adequate rather than embracing its true spirit. Ethical considerations have no more value than the choice of plants in the office. The view of Friedman (1976) that the only social responsibility of business is to increase its profits. Other literature has suggested that specialized ethical theories should be applied to business to better understand behavior in the context of the business organization. RobertAllanCooke (2004, p.2-5) evaluates in his study some fundamental fallacies about business ethics and finds that the good ethics is good business should still be termed as true. On the one hand we have the common good for society arising spontaneously from a largely unregulated market of companies pursuing their self interest and on the other hand looking for the benefit for the company that it is standing for. In both cases the benefits are supposedly efficiency and fair distribution. Taken from the level of the corporation this appears to be a real time situation offering a minimum of restriction on market behavior and maximum control over internal affairs (Andrew Bartlett David Preston 2000). We encounter various situations in our life where we have to resolve any dilemma. And Businesses are no exceptions. Businesses and managers have to maximize their profits and optimize their costs in terms of resources and while planning for this all they come across many situations where they have to choose among two choices i.e. termed by economists as opportunity cost. The choices sometimes create an ethical dilemma and the decision in such cases become more complex. With regard to consumers, the example of tobacco is particularly typical to understand. When seen in the through the lens of time it can be observed that in the short term, a need is satisfied on the expense of the long term loss of health of the customers. This has always been the strategy of the tobacco industry to not let their business slow down. While the advertising campaign in the United States was getting pace to encourage adolescents not to smoke, the tobacco companies were making new customers of the same age or teenagers in Asia an Africa by distributing free cigarettes (Levin 1991). Ethical dilemma Theory: Such dilemmas are dealt with ethical theories. One considered under the study is Utilitarian Theory. Utilitarianism is a Western adopted theory that has a history starting from the late 1700s (Harris, 2002; Shanahan Wang, 2003). Harris stated that utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive traditions of moral thought in our culture (p. 119). Rachels (1998) described utilitarian theory as based in social transformation in human nature and behaviour, and it is that alternative to natural law that encompasses it as well. Along with the applause the utilitarian theory is also criticized by many. As Peter Pratley (1997, p.140) states that it may happen that an option seems to be most profitable for the large majority, while at the same time we feel that it is morally totally improper from the point of view of distributive justice. Whereas most receive a relatively minor benefit, a small number have to cope with outrageous costs. Applying Utilitarian guidelines continually is impossible, even for private corporations with noble humanitarian intentions. Utility asks too much from individual private businesses. If each time decisions were made corporations adopted only the utilitarian most perfect solution, many would have to close down especially if they had to pay for the environmental damage they do. Utilitarian thinking favors bringing about the greatest total amount of good that we can (Harris et al 2000 p. 77). According to a utilitarian, we have, as our most basic obligation, to: produce the greatest good for the greatest number, or Maximize aggregate happiness (these are assumed to be equivalent). Problems for the general utilitarian approach are (Harris et al 2000 pp. 77-78): Utilitarianism is an information-intensive view, since there can be an enormous number of relevant factual issues. Another problem is determining the audience for a decision, which the textbook defines as the population over which the good is to be [ought to be] maximized (p. 78); that is, audience refers to all those whose happiness would be affected by the agents decision. This is problematic because decisions can sometimes affect an enormous number of people (not to mention non-human animals), into the indefinite future. Finally, the utilitarian approach is claimed to neglect considerations of justice, because it ignores the distribution of benefits and harms. Cost Benefit Analysis: How do we decide whether a given action is morally right or wrong? The answer given by cost-benefit analysis that maximizing benefits should be the priority is very similar to the answer sorted out by utilitarian. Economists who do cost-benefit analysis claim that certain non market things are hard to quantify in terms of money value but yet it is exciting and challenging (Steven 1981). Benthams ideal of a precise quantitative method for decision making is most fully realized in cost-benefit analysis. This method differs from Benthams hedonistic calculus primarily in the use of monetary units to express the benefits and drawbacks of various alternatives (Mishan, 1976). Primarily hedons and dolors i.e. positive and negative values were used to calculate utilitarian results. Any project the dollar amount of the benefits exceeds the dollar amount of the damages is worth pursuing, according to cost benefit analysis, and from among different projects. A distinction is mostly made, moreover, between cost-benefit analysis and cost-effective analysis. Cost-effective analysis assumes that there is already some agreed upon end and what is the most efficient means for achieving this end. Cost-benefit analysis, by contrast, is used to select both the means to ends and ends themselves (Baram, 1980). Experts in cost-benefit analysis attempt to overcome the problem of assigning dollar figure to non economic goods with a technique known as shadow pricing. This consists of determining the value reflected by peoples market and non market behavior. According to Macintyre (1977) cost benefit analysis is offered as a method that is itself value-free and applies only the values that people express in the market. Critics charge, however, that the method is heavily value-laden since the values of the analyst cannot be excluded entirely. Cost benefit analysis requires the analyst to determine what constitutes a cost and a benefit. However the defenders of cost-benefit analysis reply that any theory is value laden, and an advantage of cost-benefit analysis that it makes its value commitments explicit, so that they can be flagged and properly taken into account. This view has been supported in the work of Boatright (1997, p.46). A virtue of cost/benefit is that it seeks to lift a murky and endless policy debate out of the realm of ideology or moral preference into a more objective realm of testable factual propositions. The object is to gather the best available evidence of social impacts or costs and then, within a social accounting or utilitarian framework, to compare social prescriptions in terms of their prospects for reducing those costs. Yet, as Alasdair Macintyre has cogently argued, utilitarianism has unavoidable limitations that the cost/benefit specifists seldom take into account. Pragmatists who present cost/benefit analysis as a value-neutral tool, Macintyre argues, often lose sight of the fact that utilitarian tests always presuppose the application of some prior non utilitarian principle which sets limits upon the range of alternatives to be considered.(Macintyre 1977)These inputs into the putatively objective cost/benefit analysis are inherently value-laden. When they are not made explicit and are not subjected to the same rigorous tests applied within the circumscribed framework of the cost/benefit analysis itself, they can compromise the objectivity of the entire enterprise. Criticism has been immense but the allegation to assign monetary value to the non market entities is not only the challenge faced by utilitarian theory but also all other political and ethical theories (Shepley, 2006). Cost-benefit analysis can be thought of as an attempt to operationalize utilitarianism using economic analysis. The textbooks template for applying cost-benefit analysis (Harris et al 2000 p. 79): Assess the available options. Assess the costs and benefits (each measured in monetary terms) of each option for the entire audience of the action, or all of those affected by the decision. Make the decision that is likely to result in the greatest benefit relative to cost; that is, the course of action must not be one in which the cost of implementing the option could produce greater benefit if spent on another option. Problems for cost-benefit analysis are (Harris et al, 2000, pp. 80-81): Considerations of justice in the distribution of benefits and costs are ignored. Can all of the relevant costs and benefits really be adequately represented in monetary terms? What about public (non-market) goods? Can a monetary value be placed on human lives? It has been used in the past to justify morally unacceptable practices like slavery and child labor. McMaken (2001) in his article shows how trustworthy the method is to come up with such sensitive decisions such as government regulations etc. In his article he states, Its the return of cost-benefit analysis. Coast (2004) argues that money represents a passage to consumption so loss of money can represent the worth of things lost and vice versa. The advantage of using money in analysis is that money is very familiar to people and its worth is highly recognized. CBA addresses allocative efficiency which is achieved by minimizing the waste of resources and then to make one person better off without making another loose (Rushby John Cairns, 2006). Tobacco Industry Ethics: 1980-1999: The study is conducted for observing the tobacco Industrys ethical practices for that reason some literature has been explored regarding the desired objective. Tobacco is a major health hazard and an important economic commodity. It is very rational to say that if it would have been useful to use tobacco products then anti tobacco campaigns must not have been accepted so widely. On the other hand, the market for tobacco is so big that these anti tobacco regulations are hard to implement. The management of every joint-stock company is commissioned by the shareholders to achieve the maximum profit on the capital invested and to increase its market share. Consequently, a decrease in tobacco consumption or the number of consumers is not in the interests of the tobacco companies. Their goal is to increase production and consumption. The tobacco companies do not, as a rule, make statements implying that the use of their products can lead to illness or death. They may say that tobacco has been considered to be associated with increased risks. As ethical considerations now are accepted by the tobacco industry itself, an analysis of their practice of autonomy, doing good, justice and doing no harm could be done and analysed (Fagerberg et al, 1990). Now when people make informed choice that is claimed by tobacco industry to be autonomy. When people enjoy the tobacco products and consider them as their need, tobacco industry terms it as doing well to people. Allowing people to make the choices under no authority is doing justice and there is no final medical report for health consequences so that means doing no harm in the eyes of tobacco industry (Tobaks, 1990) All these arguments can be refuted asserting non-profitable motives in the service of humanity, and with the guiding principle of ethical responsibility formulated by the philosopher Hans Jonas in (1984). Thus the tobacco companies can be accused of misusing the word autonomy as they overlook the fact of chemical dependency on tobacco. Also, the long-term effects are so immense that it is difficult to defend short-term motives of both consumers and the industry. The arguments for justice and doing no harm are counteracted by the knowledge that use of tobacco leads to lesions, sometimes direct mortal lesions, and by the circumstances that general knowledge based on facts can hardly be achieved to a sufficient degree in a whole population. To sum up, it is insane for the tobacco companies to find moral defenses for their misconduct. Despite overwhelming scientific evidence against cigarettes, the tobacco industry continues to debate over the controversial results of different scientists for proving or disproving smoking as an important cause of deaths by various diseases (R Ethics in the Tobacco Industry, Pakistan Ethics in the Tobacco Industry, Pakistan Abstract Quite a lot has been said and done about Business Ethics. Several studies have been conducted emphasizing on the importance of what and How in business environment. However there has been put quite little effort in describing in a unified term of what business ethics exactly asks. Nevertheless existing giant businesses have not been scrutinized of their ethical practices. This study is an attempt to investigate what ethics does Tobacco Industry practice. The case of Pakistan is taken to complete this research so as to check in absence of strict government regulations how responsible does the industry behaves. Cost Benefit analysis procedure for clarifying this ethical dilemma shows that in the absence of strong health hazard data the industrys overall functioning can be considered ethical under utilitarian school of thought. This is because the number of beneficiaries of the industry in a developing country like Pakistan is immense and the recognized harms are comparatively less. This thesis gives the real coaster effect when these results are revealed. However this is a deductive study that leads to further research questions and discovers new undiscovered ventures to explore. Introduction Ethics is mostly known as the study of decision making that while doing this considers the widely accepted moral standards. One of the ethical questions however is the ethical dilemma, in which an issue has two conflicting bur arguably valid sides. A classical ethical dilemma example can be of the debate on allowing the tobacco companies to advertise. If allowed to do so then that means encouragement of an unhealthy practice but on the other hand if they are not allowed to advertise then it is clear discrimination between rights. Similarly Employees have the right to privacy, but employers also have right to expect safe, competent behavior from employees. Now who is to decide the winner between employees choice of taking drugs or employers liberty to let undergo their employees through drug tests? Many such ethical questions are faced by managers every day. The common theme in all ethical dilemmas is a clash between the privileges of two or more stakeholders over one another. Traditionally, the place of ethics in business practices has been to supply a decision procedure or some formal normative orientation. The place of ethical theory in the making of business decisions is problematic, and the symptoms are numerous. This can be seen, for example, in the difficulties authors of business ethics texts often have in employing ethical theories to resolve or clarify issues of ethical or social concern. In my opinion the theories for resolving the ethical dilemmas themselves create an ethical dilemma. For instance some of the employees in the organization feel that there shouldnt be fixed working hours. As long as they are productive there should not be any restrictions on them regarding the time schedules. If we analyze this case under the two schools of thought i.e. Utilitarian and the deontological we will see that if the employees are productive without imposing the limit of fixed working hours on them i.e. the consequence of the proposition is positive then according to the utilitarian theory the act is ethical. While Deontological concept will take it as unethical for it will see it as breaking the laws and conventions of the organization It can be observed that presently accepted and practiced ethical theories posit strong foundations. In my opinion however these theories are of limited use in solving ethical problems. Their reliability and ability to be generalized can be challenged because they ignore certain aspects of morality and prefer others according to different situations that arise in different contexts. This study is devoted to resolve the conflict of deciding between what is and what is not ethical in the Tobacco industry. The theory chosen for the study is utilitarian theory which has two advantages over other alternative ethical theories as how to be applied in various business endeavors. Firstly as we know that business works for the motive of benefiting self and so does utilitarian theory defines morality i.e. morality is to prefer self interest as prime. Secondly utilitarian theory is analyzed by comparing the benefits and harms of a given option and this is how it again finds similarity with profit and loss in accounting and business. Since utilitarian theory is quantified with the help of cost-benefit analysis so the data is analyzed by using cost-benefit analysis model. The strive was to be able to resolve the ethical dilemma regarding the existence and functioning of Tobacco industry without creating an ethical dilemma through the process of resolving it. Business Ethics. Business ethics is a form of applied ethics that identify and solve the ethical and moral issues in the business environment. In the increasingly conscience focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing (wikipedia, 2007). Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporations use alternate words such as social responsibility charters, corporate social responsibility etc to highlight the importance of social values and norms. Business ethics has to decide on ethical issues by looking through the lens of the employee, the enterprise or the society as a whole. Ethical dilemma It is the situation in which an issue has two conflicting but arguably valid sides. Ethical dilemmas continue to receive a great deal of attention from philosophers and management experts, who have developed a number of tools to guide managers through sometimes confusing and always difficult decisions regarding ethical dilemmas. However it is important to note that like the problem the methods for resolving this problem are also not absolute and agreed upon. Even the best models rarely lead to a single answer that is absolutely right, just or fair, but they do point the way to answers that seem more right, more just, or more fair than others Hosmer(1988 a). Principles of ethical analysis have their roots in normative philosophy, the study of proper thoughts and conduct, or how people should behave Hosmer(1988 b). Five commonly applied normative approaches are described as under. Deontology. Deontology depends on the intentions of a person making the decision or performing the act. A deontologist would disagree with the emphasis on outcome as the determinant of moral actions because consequences are generally indefinite and uncertain at the time the decision is made. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) provided much of the base for understanding this concept in all eras. Theories of Justice. Theories of justice explain ethical decisions on the basis of fairness and impartiality (Stead et al, 1990). This philosophy stresses social justice. Critics point out that this theory assumes that social cooperation provides the basis for all economic and social benefits, which may or may not be true (Stead et al, 1990). Theories of Rights. Theories of rights as from the name indicate that the most ethical decision will be based on protecting peoples right that might potentially be affected by the decision (Courtland et al, 1992). Theories of rights, unlike theories of justice, depend upon on equal opportunities for choice and exchange, not on equal allocations of wealth and income. As discussed earlier sometimes the conflicting rights become the shortcoming of the application of this theory (Courtland et al, 1992). Social Contract Theories. Social contract theories hold that when individuals become a part of a bigger community such as an organization of a local community then they agree to share the values of that group and also agrees to the means of reaching the agreed upon goals (Thomas, 1991). Critics argue that social contract theories do not give liberty to the individual thinkers who might have a contradicting opinion from their fellow community members (Thomas, 1991). Utilitarian theories. Utilitarian theories support the idea that ethical behavior results in the greatest good for the greatest number. So, according to utilitarian theories, the most ethical decision creates the greatest degree of benefits for the greater number of people while having a potential of inducing comparatively lesser amount of damages or harm (Hitt Columbus, Ohio 1990). Consequentialist moral theories are teleological which means that they aim at some goal state and evaluate the morality of actions in terms of progress toward that state. Tobacco Industry and Business Ethics. This section will outline some historical facts related to tobacco industry and will also highlight how this industry grew from the scratch. This section also includes the description of the functioning of the tobacco industry in terms of business ethics since from the beginning of its origin right up till now. Finally the chapter concludes by briefly stating how it became a part of Muslim and Asian culture. Tobacco Plant. Tobacco is a natively fostered plant of America. Tobacco plant has very small seed such as one ounce approximately contains over three hundred thousand seeds. This plant started being cultivated according to an estimate thousand years B.C. As early as one B.C., Tobacco started being used in various religious activities. Not only religious but also was thought to be of quite a medicinal importance by American Indians. It was basically thought of as pain killer and was also used by quite a number of people as a cure all solution. Discovery of the New World. Christopher Columbus was gifted dried tobacco leaves by the American Indians. As it was brought to Europe it started to be grown all over the Europe. Europeans grew it against a misinformation that tobacco has a healing tendency and that it can cure all the diseases no matter how big or small. According to a book written by a Spanish doctor in 1571 tobacco could cure at least thirty six health problems. Thomas Harriet a Virginian in 1588 invented smoking as he wanted to discover a way that could help take a daily dose of tobacco. Later he died of nose cancer because it was through the nose then that they use to breathe tobacco. In 1610 Sir Francis Bacon realized that trying to quit smoking was really difficult. In 1632 for the first time for moral reasons smoking got prohibited in Massachusetts. Tobacco: A Growth Industry For the first time when tobacco industry got significant industry value was in 1776. In the American Revolutionary War It acted as a security against the loans America borrowed from France. However scientists continued to understand the chemicals in tobacco, as well as the dangers they had. In 1836 tobacco was recognized as a lethal commodity.In 1847, the famous Phillip Morris was established, selling hand rolled Turkish cigarettes. Until 1900 chewing tobacco was the most famous tobacco product however cigarette started becoming famous in 1990s. As the cigarette was gaining popularity so was anti smoking campaigns with the notion of some states in America asking for total ban on tobacco. The demand for cigarettes however kept growing. The Recent trends. In 1980s was the time when legal actions gained their pace against the working of tobacco industry as in 1982 from the Surgeon General reports it was evident that tobacco is injurious to health and by no means its use or sale can be termed legal. It was also known that passive smoking may cause lung cancer. It was in 1990 that smoking got banned in all the flights except for the flight to Alaska and Hawaii. In 1990, Ben Jerrys initiated anti smoking campaigns and terminated business with tobacco industry allies. This lead Tobacco industry to change their strategy in the 80s and 90s and they started marketing their products heavily in developing countries of Asia. The strategy was to acquire market share from the markets with more flexible rules for tobacco business. It has been revealed that tobacco industry has realized all long and is aware of the harmfulness of their products. Knowing this did not stop them from doing and expanding business and they have been justifying this by stating that people make informed choice. This draws our attention on the fact that those who are being blamed need to take measures against this blame. The arrival of Tobacco in the Muslim World. Quite similar to the situation in Europe Tobacco use started by physicians and started to gain popularity through medical manuals and journals in the Middle East by the last years of the sixteenth century (Grehan, 2006). Those responsible for carrying the same message were mostly non Muslims that had contacts with Europe and could easily understand, interpret and translate the work of Europeans for the locals (Gokhale, 2009). There were not any segments of Middle Eastern society that did not contribute to this constantly increasing demand. While investigating tobaccos prevalence in his era, the Damascene jurist Abd al Ghani al Nabulsi confidently declared in 1682, Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam People of all kinds have used it and devoted themselves to it I have even seen young children of about five years applying themselves to it (Ghauri, Atcha, Shiekh, 2006, p.34). Among these early users were quite a lot of women (Grehan, 2006). As Grehan (2006, p.413) states from the time of its first entry, tobacco would have to rebuff strenuous challenges from political and religious authorities, who in the most critical tests of its appeal would join forces in sporadic anti-smoking campaigns. One widely accepted methodology was to win a debate for proving tobacco as an intoxicant and that it has the same affect on the body as wine therefore strictly forbidden by Islamic law as resourced in Quran and Hadith (Grehan, 2006). Tobacco manufacture in subcontinent started in Akbars reign. But by 1617 its use had become so widespread that Akbars successor Jahangir (1605-1627) issued a verdict forbidding the smoking of tobacco Gokhale (2009). Tobacco Industry of Pakistan. Smoking can be proved as dangerous for peoples health but for the economies such as of Pakistan and other such nations, it is the good news that they will always want to hear. This section intends to highlight the important role tobacco plays in the economics of the country. Tobacco industry contributed 4.4 per cent or over Rs 27.5 billion to the total GDP of Pakistan including Rs 15.17 billion, including Rs 14.54 billion in excise duty and sales tax, in 1997. According to data provided through the internet resources it can be seen that tobacco industry pays six times more taxes than is earned from the cotton industry. This makes the tobacco industry to pay over five percent of all the taxes that are collected by the country. Furthermore over a million people are working as tobacco industry employees. Cultivation area has also increased in the last decade that means increase in business. The figure indicates the increase of thirty percent which is even less than the percentage increase of production i.e. hundred and forty five percent. The only crop of Pakistan whose yield exceeds the world average is also tobacco i.e. its per hectare yield equals that of the US and several other developed countries that makes approximately nineteen hundred kilograms. Tobacco Industry and Ethics. Tobacco Companies cannot be treated like rest of the companies as all their practices and products are not like other companies. Tobacco industry produces the products that are not only legal but at the same time they are also deadly for their consumers. How wondrous is that a product can kill more than half of its regular users? As such, in terms of CSR activities, they cannot simply figure among the ranks of other consumer goods companies. Despite the tobacco industrys thinly-veiled attempts to gain corporate respectability and companies claims to have changed their practices, they keep on adopting unethical strategies to promote their products, expand markets and increase profits (WHO, 2003). Objective of study The research will focus on the Tobacco Industry of Pakistan as the case of Ethical dilemma situation.The research will investigate what ethics do the tobacco industry practice. And can they be termed ethical under Utilitarian school of thought. Utilitarian theory is the world renowned theory to solve various ethical dilemmas in terms of the consequences an activity has. In short the study will be conducted to justify the role of Tobacco Industry in terms of business ethics. Literature review This chapter serves as a backbone of the whole study. This study is deductive in approach so a complete review of the existing literature and schools of thoughts was mandatory to recommend future issues for research. The section starts with defining the core concepts and terminologies followed by how and where these concepts have been used. This section also states why one theory and method has been selected over the others. As the chapter grows there are arguments far and against of the practices of tobacco industry and how they varied in two time zones i.e. from 1980-1999 and from 2000-2007. Business ethics Dilemma: Business ethics adapts its functioning from the methods prescribed by normative believes to resolve the moral issues in businesses. Business ethics studies both profit and non-profit corporations. Existing practices are judged on the basis of what ought to be done in the given situation. One specific feature is vital to the business ethics. Business ethics has to account for strategic concerns. In the business sphere, ethical reflection has to allow for the interest at stake, in order to avoid being so high principled that one disregards all consequences for the corporations future (Peter Pratley 1997). The common opinion seems to be that the term business ethics is not found anywhere in its true spirit. This is thought because ethics and business in soul are different. Where ethics preaches being nice and charitable there business finds its way to satisfy self interests and nasty objectives. Organizations spend a lot of time and effort in implementing new initiatives for profit making and cost cutting however not even half of this commitment of resources can be seen for the implementation of ethical programs. The impression is given that adherence to the ethical code of practice is adequate rather than embracing its true spirit. Ethical considerations have no more value than the choice of plants in the office. The view of Friedman (1976) that the only social responsibility of business is to increase its profits. Other literature has suggested that specialized ethical theories should be applied to business to better understand behavior in the context of the business organization. RobertAllanCooke (2004, p.2-5) evaluates in his study some fundamental fallacies about business ethics and finds that the good ethics is good business should still be termed as true. On the one hand we have the common good for society arising spontaneously from a largely unregulated market of companies pursuing their self interest and on the other hand looking for the benefit for the company that it is standing for. In both cases the benefits are supposedly efficiency and fair distribution. Taken from the level of the corporation this appears to be a real time situation offering a minimum of restriction on market behavior and maximum control over internal affairs (Andrew Bartlett David Preston 2000). We encounter various situations in our life where we have to resolve any dilemma. And Businesses are no exceptions. Businesses and managers have to maximize their profits and optimize their costs in terms of resources and while planning for this all they come across many situations where they have to choose among two choices i.e. termed by economists as opportunity cost. The choices sometimes create an ethical dilemma and the decision in such cases become more complex. With regard to consumers, the example of tobacco is particularly typical to understand. When seen in the through the lens of time it can be observed that in the short term, a need is satisfied on the expense of the long term loss of health of the customers. This has always been the strategy of the tobacco industry to not let their business slow down. While the advertising campaign in the United States was getting pace to encourage adolescents not to smoke, the tobacco companies were making new customers of the same age or teenagers in Asia an Africa by distributing free cigarettes (Levin 1991). Ethical dilemma Theory: Such dilemmas are dealt with ethical theories. One considered under the study is Utilitarian Theory. Utilitarianism is a Western adopted theory that has a history starting from the late 1700s (Harris, 2002; Shanahan Wang, 2003). Harris stated that utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive traditions of moral thought in our culture (p. 119). Rachels (1998) described utilitarian theory as based in social transformation in human nature and behaviour, and it is that alternative to natural law that encompasses it as well. Along with the applause the utilitarian theory is also criticized by many. As Peter Pratley (1997, p.140) states that it may happen that an option seems to be most profitable for the large majority, while at the same time we feel that it is morally totally improper from the point of view of distributive justice. Whereas most receive a relatively minor benefit, a small number have to cope with outrageous costs. Applying Utilitarian guidelines continually is impossible, even for private corporations with noble humanitarian intentions. Utility asks too much from individual private businesses. If each time decisions were made corporations adopted only the utilitarian most perfect solution, many would have to close down especially if they had to pay for the environmental damage they do. Utilitarian thinking favors bringing about the greatest total amount of good that we can (Harris et al 2000 p. 77). According to a utilitarian, we have, as our most basic obligation, to: produce the greatest good for the greatest number, or Maximize aggregate happiness (these are assumed to be equivalent). Problems for the general utilitarian approach are (Harris et al 2000 pp. 77-78): Utilitarianism is an information-intensive view, since there can be an enormous number of relevant factual issues. Another problem is determining the audience for a decision, which the textbook defines as the population over which the good is to be [ought to be] maximized (p. 78); that is, audience refers to all those whose happiness would be affected by the agents decision. This is problematic because decisions can sometimes affect an enormous number of people (not to mention non-human animals), into the indefinite future. Finally, the utilitarian approach is claimed to neglect considerations of justice, because it ignores the distribution of benefits and harms. Cost Benefit Analysis: How do we decide whether a given action is morally right or wrong? The answer given by cost-benefit analysis that maximizing benefits should be the priority is very similar to the answer sorted out by utilitarian. Economists who do cost-benefit analysis claim that certain non market things are hard to quantify in terms of money value but yet it is exciting and challenging (Steven 1981). Benthams ideal of a precise quantitative method for decision making is most fully realized in cost-benefit analysis. This method differs from Benthams hedonistic calculus primarily in the use of monetary units to express the benefits and drawbacks of various alternatives (Mishan, 1976). Primarily hedons and dolors i.e. positive and negative values were used to calculate utilitarian results. Any project the dollar amount of the benefits exceeds the dollar amount of the damages is worth pursuing, according to cost benefit analysis, and from among different projects. A distinction is mostly made, moreover, between cost-benefit analysis and cost-effective analysis. Cost-effective analysis assumes that there is already some agreed upon end and what is the most efficient means for achieving this end. Cost-benefit analysis, by contrast, is used to select both the means to ends and ends themselves (Baram, 1980). Experts in cost-benefit analysis attempt to overcome the problem of assigning dollar figure to non economic goods with a technique known as shadow pricing. This consists of determining the value reflected by peoples market and non market behavior. According to Macintyre (1977) cost benefit analysis is offered as a method that is itself value-free and applies only the values that people express in the market. Critics charge, however, that the method is heavily value-laden since the values of the analyst cannot be excluded entirely. Cost benefit analysis requires the analyst to determine what constitutes a cost and a benefit. However the defenders of cost-benefit analysis reply that any theory is value laden, and an advantage of cost-benefit analysis that it makes its value commitments explicit, so that they can be flagged and properly taken into account. This view has been supported in the work of Boatright (1997, p.46). A virtue of cost/benefit is that it seeks to lift a murky and endless policy debate out of the realm of ideology or moral preference into a more objective realm of testable factual propositions. The object is to gather the best available evidence of social impacts or costs and then, within a social accounting or utilitarian framework, to compare social prescriptions in terms of their prospects for reducing those costs. Yet, as Alasdair Macintyre has cogently argued, utilitarianism has unavoidable limitations that the cost/benefit specifists seldom take into account. Pragmatists who present cost/benefit analysis as a value-neutral tool, Macintyre argues, often lose sight of the fact that utilitarian tests always presuppose the application of some prior non utilitarian principle which sets limits upon the range of alternatives to be considered.(Macintyre 1977)These inputs into the putatively objective cost/benefit analysis are inherently value-laden. When they are not made explicit and are not subjected to the same rigorous tests applied within the circumscribed framework of the cost/benefit analysis itself, they can compromise the objectivity of the entire enterprise. Criticism has been immense but the allegation to assign monetary value to the non market entities is not only the challenge faced by utilitarian theory but also all other political and ethical theories (Shepley, 2006). Cost-benefit analysis can be thought of as an attempt to operationalize utilitarianism using economic analysis. The textbooks template for applying cost-benefit analysis (Harris et al 2000 p. 79): Assess the available options. Assess the costs and benefits (each measured in monetary terms) of each option for the entire audience of the action, or all of those affected by the decision. Make the decision that is likely to result in the greatest benefit relative to cost; that is, the course of action must not be one in which the cost of implementing the option could produce greater benefit if spent on another option. Problems for cost-benefit analysis are (Harris et al, 2000, pp. 80-81): Considerations of justice in the distribution of benefits and costs are ignored. Can all of the relevant costs and benefits really be adequately represented in monetary terms? What about public (non-market) goods? Can a monetary value be placed on human lives? It has been used in the past to justify morally unacceptable practices like slavery and child labor. McMaken (2001) in his article shows how trustworthy the method is to come up with such sensitive decisions such as government regulations etc. In his article he states, Its the return of cost-benefit analysis. Coast (2004) argues that money represents a passage to consumption so loss of money can represent the worth of things lost and vice versa. The advantage of using money in analysis is that money is very familiar to people and its worth is highly recognized. CBA addresses allocative efficiency which is achieved by minimizing the waste of resources and then to make one person better off without making another loose (Rushby John Cairns, 2006). Tobacco Industry Ethics: 1980-1999: The study is conducted for observing the tobacco Industrys ethical practices for that reason some literature has been explored regarding the desired objective. Tobacco is a major health hazard and an important economic commodity. It is very rational to say that if it would have been useful to use tobacco products then anti tobacco campaigns must not have been accepted so widely. On the other hand, the market for tobacco is so big that these anti tobacco regulations are hard to implement. The management of every joint-stock company is commissioned by the shareholders to achieve the maximum profit on the capital invested and to increase its market share. Consequently, a decrease in tobacco consumption or the number of consumers is not in the interests of the tobacco companies. Their goal is to increase production and consumption. The tobacco companies do not, as a rule, make statements implying that the use of their products can lead to illness or death. They may say that tobacco has been considered to be associated with increased risks. As ethical considerations now are accepted by the tobacco industry itself, an analysis of their practice of autonomy, doing good, justice and doing no harm could be done and analysed (Fagerberg et al, 1990). Now when people make informed choice that is claimed by tobacco industry to be autonomy. When people enjoy the tobacco products and consider them as their need, tobacco industry terms it as doing well to people. Allowing people to make the choices under no authority is doing justice and there is no final medical report for health consequences so that means doing no harm in the eyes of tobacco industry (Tobaks, 1990) All these arguments can be refuted asserting non-profitable motives in the service of humanity, and with the guiding principle of ethical responsibility formulated by the philosopher Hans Jonas in (1984). Thus the tobacco companies can be accused of misusing the word autonomy as they overlook the fact of chemical dependency on tobacco. Also, the long-term effects are so immense that it is difficult to defend short-term motives of both consumers and the industry. The arguments for justice and doing no harm are counteracted by the knowledge that use of tobacco leads to lesions, sometimes direct mortal lesions, and by the circumstances that general knowledge based on facts can hardly be achieved to a sufficient degree in a whole population. To sum up, it is insane for the tobacco companies to find moral defenses for their misconduct. Despite overwhelming scientific evidence against cigarettes, the tobacco industry continues to debate over the controversial results of different scientists for proving or disproving smoking as an important cause of deaths by various diseases (R